Description

Jamaican ginger is native to Asia, but it is cultivated in Jamaica and sold commercially. Wild ginger is considered superior to Jamaican ginger but the properties are the same. The ginger plant has a perennial tuberous root or rhizome, erect annual stems with smooth sheathed leaves, 0.6 - 1 m high. The leaves are sub-sessile, on long sheaths, alternate, lanceolate, linear entire, 10 - 15 cm long, 2.5 cm wide. The solitary yellow flower is small, calyx tubular, opening on one side, three toothed, corolla with a double limb, outer three - inner three-lobed lip of dark purple.

Part Used

Root (rhizome).

Constituents

Ginger contains from 0.25 - 3.3 % of a volatile oil possessing the aroma. The volatile oil consists mostly of terpenes, d-camphene and beta-phellandrene, a sesquiterpene, zingiberene, bisabolene, cineol, citral and borneol. The pungent (hot) factor is due to gingerol, shogaols and related phenolic ketones.(1-2) The pungency of gingerol is destroyed by boiling the ginger in a 2% solution of some alkaline substance like potassium hydroxide. This method is often used to determine the presence of Capsicum , which remains pungent after the test.(4-7) Ginger also contains a ketone known as zingerone (closely related to vanillin and capsaicin), 6 - 8% lipids consisting of triglycerides, phosphatidic acid, lecithin, and free fatty acids (lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic), up to 50% starch, Vitamin A and niacin. Ginger`s oleoresin contains mainly gingerols and shogaols as well as some zingerone. Shogaols and zingerone are dehydration products of gingerol.(8) Also present are small amounts (2% of fresh juice)of a proteolytic enzyme called zingibain.(9)

Mode of Action

Ginger is mostly used as a carminative, often along with other herbs because of its great ability to stop griping and cramping especially in the abdomen, intestines, and uterus. In this nature, it is more beneficial than dimenhydrinate, as a prophylaxis for nausea and vomiting of motion sickness, dyspepsia and hyperemesis gravidarum (extended nausea and vomiting during pregnancy).(10,11) It has also shown anti-ulcer qualities and significant hepatoprotective activity.(12,13)

The extract of ginger stimulates vasomotor and respiratory centers in anesthetized cats, and acts as a direct heart stimulant.(14) Ginger has also been shown to lower both serum and hepatic cholesterol in rats fed cholesterol and to inhibit platelet aggregation.(15-18) Ginger`s ability to lower platelet aggregation seems to be due to ginerol`s ability to inhibit thromboxane synthesis and prostacyclin synthesis, which inhibit platelet cyclo-oxygenase products. This gives ginger very acceptable antithrombotic properties.(19,20)

The anti-inflammatory activity of ginger is as functional as ASA, without the analgesic activity. This is accomplished by inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism and thus some prostaglandins. This has given more evidence for the Chinese uses in rheumatism and arthritis.(21) The action Ginger has on reducing migraines seem to follow the same action.(22,23) Its mechanism here seems to be slightly different than Feverfew, as Ginger does not inhibit serotonin release as Feverfew does.

The antipyretic and thermogenic activity of ginger is quite interesting. Ginger has been shown to lower fever, most likely due to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. It does not lower temperature in individuals that have no fever. On the other hand, we can find Ginger to be quite warming if given when a person is cold. Studies have suggested it is the pungent agent that stimulates the thermoregulatory receptors. This is probably due to zingerone`s ability to evoke catecholamine secretion from the adrenal medulla (in vivo) thus inducing a warming action.. This should only account for short term action though. Long term effect appears to be related to inhibiting serotonin-induced hypothermia. Ginger is also known to stimulate cytokine secretion by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells.(24)

Ginger is known to kill vaginal trichomonads in vitro.(25) It also significantly inhibits the growth of bacteria (both Gram -positive and -negative), have antifungal action and anti-rhinoviral activity. Antioxidant effect of Ginger is comparable to synthetic antioxidants, usually contributed to gingerol and zingerone. They have been shown to scavange superoxides and hydroxyl radicals in vitro, as well as inhibit lipid peroxidation.(26)

In China, fresh ginger is a clinically effective treatment for rheumatism, acute bacterial dysentry, malaria, and orchitis (inflammation of the testicles).(27) Ginger`s beneficial effect on colic and flatulence has been well known for centuries. Ginger oil has been shown to increase capillary permeability and to induce phagocytic activity of capillary endothelium similar to histamine.(28,29)

Therapeutic Action

Stimulant, carminative, tonic, diaphoretic, diuretic.

Energetics

Traditional Chinese

Fresh ginger is pungent (acrid), having a mild warm to hot property. It enters the Lung, Spleen and Stomach meridians; releasing the exterior and dispersing cold.(30,31) The dried rhizome is extremely pungent and extremely hot. It enters the Heart, Lung, Spleen, Stomach and Kidney meridians. It warms the middle heater, reinvigorates yang, warms lungs and resolves phlegm.(32)

Ayurvedic

Rasa - katu (pungent); Guna - lagu, singdha, guru (heavy), rooksha (oily), teekshna; Veerya - ushna (hot); Vipak - madhura (sweet). Action: Kaf-bata samaka, sotha har, badanasamak, dipan pachan, batanuloman,arsoghna, kafaghana, sawas har.(33)

Other

Holmes lists ginger as very pungent, a bit sweet, hot and dry. Ginger has secondary qualities of stimulating, relaxing, restoring while dispersing movement. The herb enters the Lung, Spleen and Stomach meridians; influencing the lungs, digestive system, uterus, and immune system. Its organism is warmth and air.(34) Tierra describes dry ginger as spicy and hot; influencing the Heart, Lung, Spleen, Stomach and Kidney meridians.(35)

Folklore

Ginger has been considered the great remedy of the abdominal area. It eases both menstrual and intestinal cramps and cleanses the liver. Ginger is also used to bring circulation to the peripheral areas like the hands and feet. The Chinese often use ginger at the first stages of a cold.(36,37)

Ginger is found in the herbals of Gerard (1597), Pomet (1712), King (1882) and throughout Eclectic literature.(38) It is first noted in Chinese literature in the Collection of Commentaries of the Classic of the Materia Medica (500 A.D.)(39) and has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for over 2000 years.

Dosage

Fresh Root - 1/2 oz of powder in one pint of water.(40)
Dry powder - 20 - 30 grains(41)
Tincture BP USP - 1/2 - 1 dram (1.8 - 3.6 ml)
Syrup - 1/2 - 1 dram (1.8 - 3.6 ml)

Toxicity and Contraindications

Ginger, fresh, powdered or in an oil form has no toxic effect. It is nonirritating, nonsensitizing even in the vaginal cavity and has low phototoxicity.(42) ESCOP says there is no contraindications with no restriction on duration of use. It is suggested that Ginger might enhance the absorption of sulfaguanidine.(43) German Commission E says not to use for morning sickness during pregnancy, but other studies have negated this.(44)

Official Recognition and Medical References

German Commission E, p. 135
ESCOP, March 1996
UK, General Sales Circulaire No. 367
Belgium, Accepted for specific indications
USA, GRAS 182.10 & 182.20

References

1. The British Pharmaceutical Codex 1934. The Pharmaceutical Press, London, 1934. p. 1130.
2. Leung, A.Y. and S. Foster, Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients: Used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1996, p. 271- 73
3. Spoerke, D.G., Herbal Medications, Woodbridge Press Publ. Co., Santa Barbara CA, 1980. p. 96.
4. The British Pharmaceutical Codex 1934. Ibid.
4. Gathercoal, E.N. and Wirth, E.H., Pharmacognosy, Lea & Febiger, Phila. PA, 1936. p. 170.
5.Leung, A.Y., Ibid
6. Spoerke, D.G., Herbal Medications, Ibid.
7. Textbook of Pharmacognosy, Ibid.
8. Leung, A.Y., Ibid.
9. Reading Gina; Zingiber offinciale; ATOMS,Vol 1(1) 1995, p. 9-15
10. Mowrey DB, Clayton DE; Motion Sickness, Ginger and psychophysics; Lancet 1 (8273); 1985; p. 655-57
11. Fischer-Ramussen W, et al; European J of Obstetrics and Gyn and Repro Biol; 38, 1990, p. 19-24
12.Reading Ibid
13.Bone K; Ginger; British J of Phytotherapy; Vol. 4(3),Summer 1997, p. 110 -20
14. Leung, A.Y., Ibid.
15. Srivastava K.C., Effects of aqueous of onion, garlic and ginger on platelet aggregation and metabolism of arachidonic acid in the blood vascular system: In vitro study, Prostaglandins Med. 13:227-35, 1984.
16.Leung, A.Y., Ibid.
17. Gujarak, S., Bhumra, et al., Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale roscoe) oleoresin on serum and hepatic cholesterol levels in cholesterol-fed rats, Nutr. Rep. Int. 17:183 -189, 1978.
18. Bhandari U, Sharma JNet al; The protective action of ethanolic ginger extract in cholesterol fed rabbits; J Ethnopharmacol; 61(2) 1998 p. 167-71
19. Bone, Ibid
20. Srivastava, K.C., Ibid.
21. Srivastava KC Mustafa et al; Ginger in Rheumatism and Musculoskeletal Disorders; Med Hypothese 39, 1992; p. 342-48
22. Mustafa T, Srivastava KC; Ginger in Migraine Headaches; J of Ethnophar, 29; 1990 p. 267-73
23. Brown D, Gaby et al; Clinical Application of Natural Medicine: Migraine; American J of Nat Med; Vol 4(9), Nov 97, p. 14-16, 18-20
24. Bone Ibid.
25.Leung, A.Y., Ibid.
26.Bone Ibid.
27. Leung, A.Y., Ibid.
28. Gozsy, B., et al., Effect of phagocytic stimulation on experimental tuberculosis of guinea pigs, Amer. Rev. of Tuberculosis, 73(3) 442-43. 1956.
29.Suzi, Y. et al., Pharmacological studies on Zingiber mioga. General Pharmocologial effect of water extracts, Folia Pharm. J. 75: 669-682, 1979.
30.Hsu, H.Y., Chen, Y.P., et al., Oriental Materia Medica: a concise guide, Oriental Healing Arts Institute, Long Beach, CA, 1986, p. 64-65.
31.Bensky, D. and Gamble, A., Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Eastland Press, Seattle, WA, 1986, p. 46-47.
32.Hsu, H.Y., Chen, Y.P., et al., Ibid., p. 383-384.
33. Kapoor, L.D., CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990, p. 341-342.
34. Holmes, P., The Energetics of Western Herbs (2 vols.), Artemis Press, Boulder CO, 1989, p.110-111.
35.Tierra, M., Planetary Herbology, Lotus Press, Santa Fe, NM, 1988, p. 244.
36. Grieve, M., A Modern Herbal, Jonathan Cape, London, 1931, p. 354.
37. Willard, T.W., Textbook of Modern Herbology, c.w. Progressive Publishing Inc., Calgary, AB, Can., 1988, p. 140.
38.Crellin, J.K. and Philpott, J., Herbal Medicine: Past and Present (Vol. II), Duke University Press, London, 1990, p. 224-225.
39.Bensky, D. and Gamble, A., Ibid.
40. Grieve, M., Ibid.
41. Grieve, M., Ibid.
42. Leung, A.Y., Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs, and cosmetics, Ibid.
43.ESCOP Monographs on the Medincinal Uses of Plant Medicine; Zingiberis, March 1996.
44.Blumenthal, M. (ed.) et al., The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines, American Botanical Council, Austin, TX, 1998, p. 136.